1.1. Static and Dynamic Diagrams¶

Static diagrams emphasize the static structure of the system, its objects’ attributes, methods, and relationships. Static views include:

• Class diagrams and

• Deployment diagrams

In this course we are primarily interested in class diagrams.

Dynamic diagrams emphasize the dynamic behavior of a system, its states or modes and the collaborations between objects. Dynamic views include:

• Sequence diagrams

• State diagrams

• Use Case diagrams

1.2. Class Diagrams¶

A Class

The class diagram is one of the most commonly encountered diagrams. It describes the types of objects in a system and the kinds of static relationships that exist among them.

In UML, a class is represented by a rectangle with one or more horizontal compartments. By convention, the class name starts with a capital letter. Another convention is to italicize the class name if the class is an AbstractClass. The top compartment holds the name of the class. The name of the class is the only required field in a class diagram. The middle compartment of the class rectangle holds the list of the class attributes. The bottom compartment holds the list of methods.

Attributes and Methods

Attribute and method visibility is indicated using a single character before the class member. Static members are indicated by underlining the member name. The UML term for static members is classifier members.

The UML syntax for an attribute is: visibility name : type = defaultValue

Class diagrams use different notational standards to display class inheritance, class composition, and other associations.

Inheritance relationships

Inheritance

Generalization in action:

Students and Teachers are both People

In the UML, the Inheritance relationship is referred to as a generalization.

Inheritance is drawn as an empty arrow, pointing from the subclass to the superclass. The super class is considered a generalization of the subclass, so it makes sense that the arrow should point to the super class. The arrow is trying to say that the subclass IS A type of the super class.

In the example diagram, two classes inherit from the more general super class. It is not expressly required to draw a single merged set of lines to the super class. Some UML drawing tools draw each inheritance line as a separate straight line to the parent class. This has no impact on the meaning of the relationship. A merged line showing relationships does not imply that the two subclasses are in any way interdependent, other than they share a common ancestor.

Realization relationships

A realization is a relationship between two model elements, in which one model element (the client) realizes (implements or executes) the behavior that the other model element (the supplier) specifies.

Realization

Two classes realizing an interface

The UML graphical representation of a realization is a hollow triangle shape on the interface end of the dashed line (or tree of lines) that connects it to one or more implementers. A plain arrow head is used on the interface end of the dashed line that connects it to its users.

A realization is a relationship between classes, interfaces, components, and packages that connects a client element with a supplier element. A realization relationship between classes and interfaces and between components and interfaces shows that the class realizes the operations offered by the interface.

In this course, we are primarily concerned with relationships between classes. Note the addition at the top of the Person class: <<interface>>. The angle brakets define a stereotype. The stereotype allows UML modelers to extend the vocabulary of a model element or to be more specific about the role or purpose of a model element. In this case, the stereotype <<interface>> tells us this is not just any old class, but this class defines an interface.

Notice the similarity between the Generalization relationship and the Realization relationship. Generalization always models inheritance relationships between classes. Realization always models interface implementation relationships between classes.

Association

Association

An association represents a relationship between two classes. An association between two classes is shown by a line joining the two classes. Association indicates that one class utilizes an attribute or methods of another class. If there is no arrow on the line, the association is taken to be bi-directional, that is, both classes hold information about the other class. A unidirectional association is indicated by an arrow pointing from the object which holds to the object that is held.

Association is the least specific type of association. It is used when the classes each have their own life cycle and are independent of each other. For example, two classes might be related because one or both takes the other as a parameter to a method.

public class Author {
 
  public void write(Book b) { 
    // do something with the Book
  }
}

Multiplicity

Associations have a multiplicity (sometimes called cardinality) that indicates how many objects of each class can legitimately be involved in a given relationship. Multiplicity is expressed using an n..m notation near one end of the association line, close to the class whose multiplicity in the association we want to show.

Here n refers to the minimum number of class instances that may be involved in the association, and m to the maximum number of such instances. If n = m only the n value is shown. An optional relationship is expressed by writing 0 as the minimum number. The wildcard character * is used to represent the concept zero or more.

Example multiplicity values

Cardinality and modality	Multiplicity Values
One-to-one and mandatory	1
One-to-one and optional	0..1
One-to-many and mandatory	1..*
One-to-many and optional	*
With lower bound l and upper bound u	l..u
With lower bound l and no upper bound	l..*

Aggregation

If an association conveys information that one object is part of another object, but their lifetimes are independent (they could exist independently), then this relationship is called aggregation.

Aggregation

Aggregation is a form of the HAS A relationship

For example, a university owns various departments (e.g., chemistry), and each department has a number of professors. If the university closes, the departments will no longer exist, but the professors in those departments will continue to exist. Therefore, a University can be seen as a composition of departments, whereas departments have an aggregation of professors. In addition, a Professor could work in more than one department, but a department could not be part of more than one university. For example:

public class Department {
 
  private Professor prof;
 
  public void setProf(Professor prof) { 
    this.prof = prof; 
  }
}

Compositon

Composiiton

A car not only has an engine, it owns it.

Composition is even more specific than aggregation. Like aggregation, one class has an instance of another class, but the child class’s instance life cycle is dependent on the parent class’s instance life cycle. In other words, when the parent dies, the child dies.

An example might be two classes Car and Engine. When a Car is created, it comes with an Engine. The Engine can exist only as long as the Car exists. Furthermore, the Engine exists solely for the benefit of the Car that contains the Engine—no other car can use this engine. When the Car is destroyed, the Engine is destroyed. For example:

public class Car {
 
  private Engine mopar = new Engine();
 
}


// an alternative method using constructor initialization 
public class Car {
 
  private Engine mopar;
 
  public Car() {
    mopar = new Engine();
  } 
}


// another alternative using lazy initialization
public class Car {
 
  private Engine mopar;
 
  public void buildEngine() {
    if (null == mopar) {
      mopar = new Engine();
    }
    mopar.doSomething();
  }
}

Dependency relationships

Dependency

Dependency is represented when a reference to one class is passed in as a method parameter to another class. For example, an instance of class Book is passed in to a method of class Customer:

public class Customer {
    
  public void purchase(Book b) {}
}

The Customer class requires the Book class to function, but doesn’t own it. The caller of the purchase method is required to supply a Book.

More example diagrams and explanations can be viewed at uml-diagrams.org.