2.1.1. Selection¶

The methods that we have written thus far have a common characteristic–sequential execution. Sequential execution means that the statements are executed one after another in the order that they appear in the source code. In this chapter, we will learn how to create a block of statements that we can either execute or skip, as well as how we can choose to execute one of multiple alternative blocks of statements.

A control structure is a feature of a programming language that determines the order in which statements will be executed. There are three categories of control structures: (1) sequential structures, (2) selection structures, and (3) repetition structures (also called loops).

Sequential structure is the default structure that is used by most object-oriented programming languages: putting one statement after the other, in sequence. Unless we indicate otherwise, the statements will be executed in the order that they appear in the source code, and each statement will be executed exactly once. Every program that we have seen thus far uses nothing but sequential structure.

A condition is a crucial part of the selection structures and the repetition structures. A condition is any expression that can be either true or false.

Every selection structure defines two or more alternate paths through the source code. There are three important selection structures: an if-then-else structure, an if-then structure, and a multi-way branching structure.

An if-then-else structure (sometimes called an if-else structure) is the most fundamental selection structure, since it can be used to form any choice pattern possible. An if-then-else structure defines two different blocks of statements, only one of which will be executed.

An if-then structure (sometimes called simply an if structure) is a special form of if-then-else where only one block of statements is provided and the second block of statements is omitted. As a result, an if-then structure defines an optional block of statements, where the block is either executed or skipped.

A multi-way-if structure (sometimes called a multi-way branching structure) defines several different blocks of statements, only one of which will be executed. Java also has a switch structure to create a multi-way branching structure, but we’ll learn about it later.

2.1.2. Conditions Using Sensor Methods¶

The Jeroo class provides a number of sensor methods that can be used to ask a Jeroo something about its immediate surroundings. Each sensor method has either a true or a false result. Any method that produces either true or false as a result is called a boolean method (also called a predicate). More generally, any expression that is either true or false is called a boolean expression (named after George Boole ). This means that the conditions that are used in various control structures are, in fact, boolean expressions.

For Jeroos, the sensor methods are the basic building blocks for creating conditions. The simplest way to create a condition is to invoke a sensor method. The table below lists all of the sensor methods provided by the Jeroo class. These methods can only be used to construct conditions. Since they are methods, they are invoked by sending a message to a Jeroo object.

Notably, when you see relativeDirection, your choices of direction include HERE, LEFT, RIGHT, and AHEAD. When you see compassDirection, your choices of direction are: NORTH, SOUTH, EAST, and WEST.

2.1.3. An Overview of Conditional Statements¶

2.1.4. Java’s Syntax for the If-Then-Else Structure¶

This figure shows the syntax of the if-then-else structure in Java. There are four important things to observe about the syntax.

1. The condition must be in parentheses.

2. There is no semicolon after the parentheses.

3. There is no semicolon after the keyword else.

4. The if-then-else structure is not a method, which means that we do not send it as a message to a Jeroo object.

There are three important things to observe about the coding style.

1. Braces are used to define the beginning and end of both the true branch and the false branch. Always include them.

2. The braces are aligned with the start of the words if and else.

3. The statements between the braces should be indented (we use 4 spaces).

if (timmy.seesNet(AHEAD))
{
    timmy.toss();
    timmy.turn(LEFT);
    timmy.turn(LEFT);
}
else
{
    timmy.turn(RIGHT);
}

timmy.hop();

2.1.5. Syntax Practice 3a: If-Then-Else¶

2.1.6. Creating Optional Statements With If-then¶

An if-then structure (sometimes called an if structure) defines an optional block of statements. An if-then structure is simply an if-then-else structure where the second block of statements (the else part) has been omitted, so that the choice becomes whether to execute the first block of statements or skip it.

There are two parts to an if structure, the selection condition and the true branch. The true branch contains a block of statements that will only be executed whenever the selection condition is true.

The figure above shows a generic if-then structure, and uses arrows to show the order in which statements will be executed. The if structure defines optional code, and that code is either skipped or executed just once.

2.1.7. Java’s Syntax for the If-then Structure¶

This figure shows the syntax of the if-then structure in Java. There are three important things to observe about the syntax.

1. The condition must be in parentheses.

2. There is no semicolon after the parentheses.

3. The if-then structure is not a method, which means that we do not send it as a message to a Jeroo object.

There are three important things to observe about the coding style.

1. Braces are used to define the beginning and end of the true branch. Always include them.

2. The braces are aligned with the start of the word if.

3. The statements between the braces should be indented (we use 4 spaces).

if (jessica.seesNet(RIGHT))
{
    jessica.turn(RIGHT);
    jessica.toss();
    jessica.turn(LEFT);
}

jessica.hop();

2.1.8. Syntax Practice 3b: If-Then¶

2.1.9. Java’s Syntax for the Multi-way Selection Structure (a cascaded if)¶

This figure shows a common technique for writing a multi-way selection structure in Java. Technically, this structure consists of a series of nested if-then-else statements, but the coding style obscures this fact and makes the multi-way selection logic more visible. This particular structure is often called a cascaded if.

There are five important things to observe about this structure.

1. The condition must be in parentheses.

2. There is no semicolon after the parentheses.

3. There is no limit on the number of else-if blocks.

4. The final else branch is optional.

5. This structure is not a method, which means that we do not send it as a message to a Jeroo object.

There are three important things to observe about the coding style.

1. Braces are used to define the beginning and end of the true branch. Always include them.

2. The braces are aligned with the start of the word if and else.

3. The statements between the braces should be indented (we use 4 spaces).

if (louisa.seesFlower(AHEAD))
{
    louisa.hop();
    louisa.pick();
}
else if (louisa.seesNet(AHEAD))
{
    louisa.toss();
}
else if (louisa.seesWater(AHEAD))
{
    louisa.plant();
}
else if (louisa.seesJeroo(AHEAD))
{
    louisa.give(AHEAD);
}
else
{
    louisa.hop();
    louisa.turn(LEFT);
}

2.1.10. Syntax Practice 3c: Multi-way If¶

2.1.11. Compound Conditions¶

Conditions come in two forms, simple and compound. A simple condition is a boolean expression that does not contain any other boolean expression. With Jeroos, a simple condition is formed by invoking a single sensor method. A compound condition is created by using logical operators to combine conditions. The three most commonly used logical operators in Java are: negation (not), conjunction (and), and disjunction (or). Java uses special keystrokes for each of these as shown in the following table.

Notably, java recognizes single & and | as separate operators (they have to do with binary math) from && and ||. No errors will be thrown if you mistake one for the other and your code will simply behave oddly. Also, ! is a unary operator. It can modify a single if statement but not combine two together.

The negation reverses the value of a boolean expression, changing true to false and false to true, as shown in this table:

In this table, P represents an arbitrary boolean expression. The two rows underneath P show its possible values. The second column shows the corresponding values for the expression !P, where the negation operator is applied to the boolean expression.

The conjunction operator (&&, representing logical AND) combines two boolean expressions to create a third that is only true when both of the original expressions are true:

In this table, P and Q represent arbitrary boolean expressions. The rows underneath P and Q show all possible combinations of their values. The third column shows the corresponding values for P && Q.

The disjunction operator (||, representing logical OR) combines two boolean expressions to create a third that is only false when both of the original expressions are false:

In this table, P and Q once again represent arbitrary boolean expressions. The rows underneath P and Q show all possible combinations of their values. The third column shows the corresponding values for the expression P || Q.

boolean x = false;

martha.seesNet(AHEAD)

2.1.12. Syntax Practice 3d: Compound Conditions¶

2.1.13. Repeating Actions¶

In the previous sections, we learned how to use an if-then-else or if-then structure to decide which action to perform. In this section, we will learn how to create a block of statements that can be executed several times in succession. We do this using a repetition structure (also called a loop), which is one of the fundamental control structures supported by most imperative and object-oriented programming languages.

A repetition structure (or loop) allows a group of statements to be executed several times in succession. There are three important repetition structures: a loop repeats an action for every object in a collection of objects, a loop that is controlled by the state of the objects in the program, and a loop that is controlled by a counter (usually a number). In this chapter, we are going to focus on just one kind of loop, one that is controlled by the state of the objects in the program. This happens to be the most general and most fundamental kind of repetition structure in many programming languages.

2.1.14. Generic Repetition Structures¶

There are two major parts to every repetition structure, the body and the controlling condition. These two parts provide a way to classify loops.

The block of statements that can be executed repeatedly is called the body of the loop. Each time that the statements in the body are executed is called a trip (or iteration) through the loop, and the number of times the body is executed is called the trip count.

The controlling condition is a condition that is checked to determine whether to make a trip through the body or terminate the loop. The controlling condition is rechecked after each trip through the body of the loop.

One criterion for classifying loops is based on when the controlling condition is checked relative to the first trip through the body. In a pretest loop, the controlling condition is always checked before the body can be executed for the first time. In a posttest loop, the controlling condition is not checked until after the first trip through the body. In either case, the condition is checked after each trip through the body to determine whether or not to make another trip.

A second criterion for classifying loops is based on whether a true condition or a false condition leads to a trip through the body. In a while loop, a true condition leads to a trip through the body, but a false condition terminates the loop. In an until loop, a true condition terminates the loop, but a false condition leads to a trip through the body. The difference between the while and until loops is summarized in this table:

Combining these two criteria, we can define four broad categories of loops: pretest while, pretest until, posttest while, and posttest until. Few programming languages provide all four of these (most only provide two, or even one!), but the most common form that is supported in virtually every imperative and object-oriented programming language is the pretest while loop. We’ll focus exclusively on pretest while loops in the remainder of this chapter.

Since the pretest while loop is the most common repetition structure across imperative and object-oriented languages, we will take a closer look at it.

The figure above shows a generic pretest while loop and uses arrows to show the order in which statements are executed and the condition is checked.

2.1.15. Java’s Syntax for the While Loop¶

The figure above shows the Java syntax for a pretest while loop in Java. There are three important things to observe about the syntax.

1. The condition must be in parentheses.

2. There is no semicolon after the parentheses containing the condition or after the keyword else.

3. The while structure is not a method, which means that we do not send it as a message to a Jeroo object.

There are three important things to observe about the coding style.

1. Braces are used to define the beginning and end of both the body of the while statement. Always include them.

2. The braces are aligned with the start of the word while.

3. The statements between the braces should be indented (we use 4 spaces).

while (kim.seesFlower(AHEAD))
{
    kim.hop();
    kim.pick();
}

kim.turn(LEFT);

2.1.16. Syntax Practice 3e: While Loops¶

2.1.17. Programming Practice 3¶

2.1.18. Check Your Understanding¶